Respiratory

Obstructive Sleep Apnea Recurrent episodes of obstructive breathing during sleep caused by collapse of the upper airways. Definitions Apnea—episodes of paused breathing lasting for at least 10 seconds Hypopnea—inadequate or shallow breathing episodes lasting for at least 10 seconds with at least 4% oxygen desaturation and at least 30% reduction in airflow; also defined as […]

Massive pulmonary embolism/ cor pulmonale are associated with right ventricular failure, arterial hypoxemia and decreasing end-tidal CO2.

A number of factors play a role in controlling alveolar ventilation. The central areas of inspiratory and expiratory control lie in the medulla, and primarily respond to increases in hydrogen ion concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid. Although hydrogen ion concentration is the most important stimulus to the chemosensitive centers in the medulla, these ions cross

Intraoperative bronchospasm should be first treated by confirming that there is no mechanical obstruction of the tracheal tube, tube placement is correct and adequate depth of anesthesia is present. The initial treatment consists of the administration of a beta-agonist such as albuterol. Epinephrine should be reserved for a severe bronchospasm refractory to initial beta-agonist therapy

Alveolar Cell Types Type I Pneumocytes 97% of alveolar surfaces. Line the alveoli. Squamous; thin for optimal gas diffusion Type II Pneumocytes Secrete surfactant from lamellar bodies (arrow in A ) -> ↓ alveolar surface tension, prevents alveolar collapse, ↓ lung recoil, and ↑ compliance. Cuboidal and clustered B . Also serve as precursors to type